@node Memory allocation
@chapter Memory allocation
@cpindex Memory allocation
@cpindex Allocate memory
The ability to allocate memory of on at compile-time
unknown amount is an important feature for most
programs.
@cpindex Virtual address space
@cpindex Virtual memory-address
@cpindex Memory, virtual address space
@cpindex @sc{RAM}
@cpindex Swap space
On modern operating systems, processes do not have
direct access to the memory. Only the operating system
kernel does. Instead, the process have virtual
memory-addresses, that the kernel maps to either,
real @sc{RAM}, swap space (disc backed), file segments,
or zeroes.
@cpindex Forks
@cpindex Exec:s
@cpindex Process image
@cpindex Memory sharing, private memory
@cpindex Private memory sharing
@cpindex Memory deduplication
@cpindex Deduplication memory
Memory for a process is either allocated programmatically,
or when the process forks (is created) or exec:s
(changes process image.) The operating system kernel is
typically configured to share a much memory between processes
as possible. For example, and a process forks, they will
share their memory rather than duplicate the memory, and
the kernel will only remap the memory when the processs'
memory content diverges. It is also possible to allocate
memory in such a way that processes can share it. so that
updates from one process influences the other processes.
@cpindex Virtual address space segments
@cpindex Memory segments
@cpindex Segments, virtual address space
A process' virtual address space is divided into segments.
There are three important segments.
@table @i
@item text segment
@cpindex Segment, text
@cpindex Text segment
@cpindex @code{.text}
@cpindex Instructions
@cpindex Static constants
@cpindex Constants, static
@cpindex Literals
@cpindex Strings, literals
When a process exec:s this segment is allocated.
It contains instructions, static constants, and
literals.
@item BSS segment
@cpindex Segment, @sc{BSS}
@cpindex @sc{BSS} segment
@cpindex @code{.bss}
@cpindex Block Started by Symbol
@cpindex Uninitialised variables
@cpindex Zero variables
@cpindex Global variables
@cpindex Static variables
When a process exec:s this segment is allocated.
It contains all global and static variables that are
initialised to zero or lacks explicit initialisation.
On some systems this segment is merged into the data
segment. @sc{BSS} is an acronym: `Block Started by Symbol'.
@item data segment
@cpindex Segment, data
@cpindex Data segment
@cpindex @code{.data}
@cpindex Heap
@cpindex Memory, heap
@cpindex Global variables
@cpindex Static variables
When a process exec:s this segment is allocated.
It is filled all global and static variables that
are not covered by the @sc{BSS} segment.
This segment's lower end is fixed, and its upper end
is unfixed; it can be resized. Any part of the segment
that is a result of it being resized, is referred to
as the heap.
@item stack segment
@cpindex Segment, stack
@cpindex Stack segment
@cpindex Memory, stack
@cpindex Call-stack
@cpindex Automatic variables
This segment contains a@footnote{Program stack's can
created programmtically, hence `a' rather than `the'.}
program stack. A program stack contains information
required to return after a function call, and automatic
variables. Depending on the platform and the function
it may also contain arguments passed in function calls
and return values. It grows as the stack grows, but
it does not shrink as the stack shrinks.
@end table
The layout of the segments is machine dependent and
operating system. However, a common@footnote{Keeping
in mind this cannot be assumed practice, and that
it is in fact different between systems.} layout is
have the text segment (as other fixed segments) start
at 0, and end at some positive address. The text
segment is then followed by the @sc{BSS} segment, and
the data segment. The stack segment however, grows
from the highest address (@math{-1} on two's
complement-machines) downwards. The process cannot
allocate any more memory when the allocation would
require the data segment to be grown to such an
extent that it would overlap with the stack segment.
In C there are multiple ways to allocate memory.
@itemize @bullet{}
@item
@cpindex Global variables
@cpindex Static allocations
Variables that are declared outside functions are
called global variables@footnote{Even if that are
declared with @code{static}. In this context,
@code{static} is only use to hide object from
other translation units.}. These are stored either
in the @sc{BSS} segment or in the data segment, depending
on their initialisation. Pointer are stored as
numerical values, and the content is stored in the
text segment. Arrays however are not stored, but
their content is. In the data segment (or in the
@sc{BSS} segment if the elements are zeroes.) These
allocations are known as @i{static allocations}.
@item
@cpindex @code{static}
@cpindex Static variables
@cpindex Static allocations
Variables that are declared inside functions, with
@code{static}, are stored just like global variables.
These are called static variables, and remain unchanged
between function calls, and only change in statements
other than the declaration statement. These allocations
are known as @i{static allocations}.
@item
@cpindex @code{auto}
@cpindex Local variables
@cpindex Automatic variables
@cpindex Automatic allocations
@cpindex Stack-allocations
Variables that are declared inside functions (these
are known as local variables), without @code{static},
but with @code{auto}, are called automatic variables.
These are stored in the stack segment, and are
deallocated when the function returns. Local variables
that are declared with neither @code{static},
@code{auto}, or @code{register} are often though of
as automatic; however, the compiler may choose to
add @code{register}. These allocations are known as
@i{automatic allocations}@footnote{Known in some other
programming languages as stack-allocations.}.
@item
@cpindex @code{register}
@cpindex Register variables
Variables that are declared with @code{register}
are not stored in any segment. They lack addresses
and stored as CPU registers.
@item
@cpindex Dynamic allocation
@cpindex Heap-allocation
Using system calls, a heap can be created, where
new allocations are stored. These are often allocated
with the function @code{malloc}, and are known as
@i{dynamic allocations}@footnote{Known in some other
programming languages as heap-allocations.}.
@end itemize
@cpindex Dynamic allocation
@cpindex Automatic allocations
@cpindex Stack-allocations
Some compilers, including @sc{GCC}, provide two
additional ways to allocate memory.
@table @asis
@item @i{Variable-length arrays}
@cpindex Variable-length arrays
@cpindex Arrays, variable-length
A simple example of variable-length arrays, available
with some compilers, is
@example
void function(size_t n)
@{
int array[n];
/* ... */
@}
@end example
Variable-length arrays have a special property:
they may be deallocated before the function returns.
In fact, they are returned once the variable becomes
invisible, this causes the follow example to work
without every exhausting the memory.
@example
void function(size_t n)
@{
for (;;)
@{
int array[n];
/* ... */
@}
@}
@end example
@item @code{alloca}
@fnindex alloca
@code{alloca} is a special function that is implement
by the compiler. It increases the stack and returns
a pointer to the beginning of the new part of the stack.
It is similar to variable-length arrays, however the
allocation is not deallocated before the function returns.
This causes the follow example to eventually exhaust
the memory.
@example
void function(size_t n)
@{
for (;;)
@{
int pointer* = alloca(n);
/* ... */
@}
@}
@end example
@end table
Both of these allocation-methods are both automatic
and dynamic.
@cpindex Memory exhaustion
Memory allocation functions return @code{NULL} if
the process cannot allocate more memory. However,
under typical configurations of the operating system
kernel, memory allocation functions can return
succesfully, even if the system's memory is exhausted.
The process's virtual address space is not exhausted,
so it thinks it can allocate the memory, but the machines
memory is exhausted, so once the process tries to write
to the memory, the kernel cannot map the virtual address
to a real address. When this happens the process is
killed by a @code{SIGSEGV}@footnote{Segmentation
violation, also known as segmentation fault.} signal.
@menu
* The alloca function:: Dynamically allocate automatically freed memory.
* Basic memory allocation:: Basic functions for dynamic memory allocation.
* Resizing memory allocations:: How to resize memory allocations.
* Efficient stack-based allocations:: Improving the performance using constrained allocation methods.
* Resizing the data segment:: How to change the size of the heap.
* Memory locking:: How to prevent pages from being swapped out.
@end menu
@node The alloca function
@section The @code{alloca} function
@cpindex Dynamic allocation
@cpindex Automatic allocations
@cpindex Stack-allocations
@fnindex alloca
The function @code{void* alloca(size_t n)} appears
on multiple systems: 32V, @sc{PWB}, @sc{PWB}.2,
3@sc{BSD}, 4@sc{BSD}, and @sc{GNU}. It has been
added to @command{slibc}, without require on
feature-test macros, despite not being standardised
(for instance, it does not appear in @sc{POSIX}).
This function is however not portable, and will not
be made available if @code{_PORTABLE_SOURCE} or
@code{_LIBRARY_HEADER} is defined.
@code{void* alloca(size_t n)} is similar to the
function @code{malloc}. It allocates a contiguous
space of usable memory of @code{n} bytes, and
returns a pointer, which points to the beginning
of the allocated memory. However, the allocate
appears on the stack rather than the heap, and
it automatically deallocated when the function
whence the call to @code{alloca} was made. Be
cause if this, @code{alloca} is implemented as
a macro --- using an intrinsic function provided
by the compiler --- rather than as a function.
You must not try to free the memory explicitly,
with a function like @code{free}, or resize it
with a function like @code{realloc}. Just like
arrays and pointers to automatic variables,
memory management functions cannot operate
memory allocated with @code{alloca}.
@cpindex Memory exhaustion
Unlike @code{malloc}, @code{alloca} does not detect
memory exhaustion, thus it will never return
@code{NULL}. However, it is likely that the process
will receive @code{SIGSEGV}@footnote{Segmentation
violation, also known as segmentation fault.} if it
tries to access memory that could not be allocated,
or, depending on the kernel's configuration, before
it returns.
Undefined behaviour may be invoked if @code{alloca}
is called within a function call. The behaviour
depends on the machine, the compiler, and
optimisations. You should avoid code similar to
@example
#define strdupa(string) \
strcpy(alloca((strlen(string) + 1) * sizeof(char)), string)
@end example
@node Basic memory allocation
@section Basic memory allocation
TODO
@node Resizing memory allocations
@section Resizing memory allocations
TODO
@node Efficient stack-based allocations
@section Efficient stack-based allocations
TODO
@node Resizing the data segment
@section Resizing the data segment
TODO
@node Memory locking
@section Memory locking
TODO
